Environmental decay and the illegal market in e-waste from a European perspective: current problems and future directions

Resum

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In the last decade, the growth in electronics production and consumption has been coupled with an increase in the illegal export of electrical and electronic waste (or "ewaste") beyond the borders of the European Union (EU). Shipped to illegal recycling facilities in less industrialized countries, e-waste is a severe threat to the integrity of local environments and a potential source of ecosystem and biodiversity loss. Although the extent of the damage caused by e-waste pollution is unknown, scientific studies have warned of the perils of hazardous substances, which are released during primitive e-waste recycling activities in countries such as China, Ghana and Nigeria. Drawing insights from the scientific literature, this paper illustrates how the problem of ewaste pollution is intrinsically linked to the issue of biodiversity and ecosystem degradation. In particular, it argues that much greater attention should be paid to the EU Directives on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS) and to the proposals to recast the two Directives because of their potential to enhance environmental protection globally. Nonetheless, underpinning this scrutiny is the contention that shortcomings in the EU legal framework on e-waste could ultimately affect the environment and biodiversity of less industrialized states.
En la darrera dècada, el creixement de la producció i ús d’aparells electrònics ha donat origen a una exportació il·legal de residus elèctrics i electrònics des de la Unió Europea (UE) als països en desenvolupament. Enviats a llocs de reciclatge il·legal, els residus electrònics constitueixen una amenaça per a la integritat del medi ambient local i una causa potencial de pèrdua de biodiversitat i degradació de l’ecosistema. Malgrat que la gravetat dels danys causats pels residus electrònics al medi ambient en països com Xina, Ghana i Nigèria és desconeguda, estudis científics han posat de manifest que les substàncies que s’alliberen durant les operacions de reciclatge són extremadament tòxiques. En aquest estudi, que es basa en la bibliografia científica existent, s’examina la relació entre la contaminació provocada pels residus electrònics i el debilitament de l’ecosistema i de la biodiversitat. A més, l’article sosté que cal prestar una atenció especial a la legislació de la UE, particularment a la Directiva sobre restriccions a la utilització de determinades substàncies perilloses en aparells elèctrics i electrònics (RoHS), la Directiva sobre residus d’aparells elèctrics i electrònics (RAEE), i les propostes de refosa de les dues directives, perquè poden contribuir a millorar la protecció del medi ambient a escala mundial. Tanmateix, l’anàlisi es basa en l’argument que les deficiències existents en les directives RoHS i RAEE i les propostes de refosa podrien provocar, eventualment, una disminució severa i irreversible de la biodiversitat i la degradació del medi ambient en els estats menys industrialitzats.
En la última década, el crecimiento de la producción y uso de aparatos electrónicos ha dado lugar a una exportación ilegal de residuos eléctricos y electrónicos de la Unión Europea (UE) a los países en desarrollo. Enviados a sitios de reciclaje ilegal, los residuos electrónicos constituyen una amenaza para la integridad del medio ambiente local y una causa potencial de pérdida de biodiversidad y degradación del ecosistema. Aunque se desconoce la gravedad de los daños ocasionados por los residuos electrónicos al medio ambiente en países como China, Ghana y Nigeria, estudios científicos han puesto de manifiesto que las sustancias que se liberan durante las operaciones de reciclaje son extremadamente tóxicas. En este estudio, que se basa en la literatura científica existente, se examina la relación entre la contaminación provocada por los residuos electrónicos y el debilitamiento del ecosistema y de la biodiversidad. Además, el artículo sostiene que se debe prestar especial atención a la legislación de la UE, especialmente, a la Directiva sobre restricciones a la utilización de determinadas sustancias peligrosas en aparatos eléctricos y electrónicos (RoHS), a la Directiva sobre residuos de aparatos eléctricos y electrónicos (RAEE), y las propuestas de refundición de estas dos directivas, porque pueden contribuir a mejorar la protección del medio ambiente a nivel mundial. Pero este análisis se basa en el argumento que las deficiencias existentes en las directivas RoHS y RAEE y en las propuestas de refundición podrían, eventualmente, provocar una disminución severa e irreversible de la biodiversidad y la degradación del medio ambiente en los estados menos industrializados.
KEYWORDS: Electrical and electronic waste - Hazardous substances - Environmental pollution - RoHS and WEEE Directives
PARAULES CLAU: residus d’aparells elèctrics i electrònics - substàncies tòxiques - contaminació ambiental - directives RoHS i RAEE
PALABRAS CLAVE: Residuos de aparatos eléctricos y electrónicos - Sustancias tóxicas - Contaminación ambiental - Directivas RoHS y RAEE

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Extracte

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Environmental decay and the illegal market in e-waste from a European perspective: current problems and future directions

Over the past decade, transporting electrical and electronic waste (or "e-waste") illegally from the European Union (EU) to less industrialized countries has become a very lucrative business.1 Despite increasing regulatory efforts, the EU has not been able to reduce this upward trend. Sent to ill-equipped recycling facilities in developing states, electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) has proven to pose severe threats to the environment.2

Research demonstrates that the illegal market in e-waste has intensified environmental

*An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Eighth Annual Colloquium of the IUCN Academy of Environmental Law held on 13-17 September 2010, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.

** The author owes special thanks to Professor Michael Lynch for his support and suggestions. She would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

pollution, creating an accumulation of hazardous substances in natural environments.3

Empirical evidence suggests that the uncontrolled dispersion of toxic pollutants, released by dumped waste or by the burning of waste on open fires, is a severe threat to the integrity of local ecosystems and wildlife.4

In response, researchers across the disciplines have examined the issue over the years. Discussions have revolved around the impact of the EU legislation that, in addition to the Basel Convention - an international treaty that establishes a global framework for controlling the transboundary trade in hazardous waste - regulates the shipment of waste across EU member states and to non-EU countries.5 In several other arenas, scholars have attempted to explore factors associated with the illegal trafficking in waste. On the one hand, criminologists have focused on the transnational dimension of this environmental crime and the involvement of organized crime syndicates while lawyers have examined the

EU legislation and its asymmetries.6 On the other hand, biologists and toxicologists have studied the environmental implications associated with the release of pollutants from inorganic wastes.7 However, no studies have focused on the relationship between illegal trafficking in e-waste and environmental degradation.8 So far, it seems that researchers have disregarded scientific evidence that shows the dangers of hazardous substances and the devastating effects of e-waste pollution on the environment. Moreover, scholars have not yet considered the impact of the EU legislation on e-waste: namely, the EU Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS), the EU Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and the recast proposals.9 The EU legislation on e-waste, which has introduced new standards in the fields of electronics manufacturing and e-waste management, could have an impact on biodiversity and ecosystem protection not only within the EU but also

beyond its borders.10 In particular, no studies have investigated whether the legal constraints of the EU legislation on e-waste could result in e-waste pollution posing a greater threat to the environment. The present analysis focuses on this facet of the legislation, and suggests further insights into the RoHS and WEEE Directives, because of their potential to enhance environmental protection globally.

The paper is divided into three sections. The first provides an overview of the issue of illegal waste trafficking, focusing specifically on the exportation of e-waste out of the EU to countries that are not members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (non-OECD countries).11 The second section explores the impact of e-waste pollution caused by primitive recycling activities, including water and soil contamination. To this end, details about the pollution potentials of e-waste and its effects on biodiversity are provided. The third section examines how legislation in the EU has been passed to protect the environment against the threat posed by e-waste handling, but has failed to adequately tackle the problem of e-waste pollution and management. In particular, attention is devoted to the RoHS Directive, the WEEE Directive and the recast proposals in order to problematize the challenges to effective environmental protection.

I. Background and overview

The problem of transboundary pollution from toxic waste can be traced back to the 1980s, when Europe and the U.S. witnessed an intensification of waste export to less industrialized

countries.12 This intensification was the result of several factors, among which were the increase in the costs of the environmentally sound management of waste in developed states, world economic globalization and national regulatory and market asymmetries.13

These circumstances h...

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